The theories' techniques of observing, defining and analyzing society explain their differences and similarities. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. In a sense, they are saying I want my social mobility back or I dont want others to be rising above me with their own social mobility. On the other hand, those on the bottom may make the claim that upward mobility has no effect on others at the top, but relationally, this is not the case. The symbolic interaction theory basically addresses two issues. However, there are some people who are always in the restricted exchange mode (e.g., what have you done for me lately?). Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). They must struggle to keep their high status. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. However, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might appear in political action. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. The second type of exchange is generalized exchange. In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. In a way, symbolic interactionism is a liberating and emancipating force Similarly, powerful groups of people or structure can impose their will upon others with complete disregard for social beliefs. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. One could make a similar comment about the Bush family as a political dynasty (Baker 2008). The purposes of these oppressions are boundary maintenance processes to indicate that the oppressors belong to a superior group and the subordinates belong to a less worthy group. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. The two types of behavior have two different types of exchange. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. The couples' income was relatively low, with 75 percent earning less than $14,000 a year. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture Conclusion Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. Theories of Exchange in Social Psychology. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. Symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism is sociological perspective that emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and We discussed in class today that "Symbolic interactionism" is how gender differences are reinforced and institutionalized through the process of "socialization". Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. However, there are some people who are always in the restricted exchange mode (e.g., what have you done for me lately?). Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. Sometimes these exchanges are made more long-term, but they are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). According to symbolic interaction theory, people are capable of change: when we make a mistaken assumption, our interactions with others can help to correct our misconceptions. Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. Trust may develop. The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). Search in book: Search Contents. But Athens does point to a critical weakness of symbolic interactionism as he comes up with a contrary view of the good socialization process described by George Herbert Mead, which is the process of violentization thesis. Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. In one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers. Eventually, they become upper-middle class by maintaining both their kinship and business ties by emphasizing positive family and business generalized others. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). Addressing systemic inequalities within the . Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. It argues that reality is simply what people make it to be through their interpretation of interactions.. Constructivists believe that people have created social constructs based on their relationship to others, and the social constructs that have lasted over time are now the symbols . George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. 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